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Can An Individual Be An Animal In Literature

Written By Tuesday, June 21, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Attribution of human form given from other characteristics to anything other than a human being being

Anthropomorphism is the attribution of man traits, emotions, or intentions to not-homo entities.[1] It is considered to be an innate trend of human being psychology.[2]

Personification is the related attribution of human form and characteristics to abstract concepts such as nations, emotions, and natural forces, such as seasons and weather condition.

Both have ancient roots as storytelling and creative devices, and virtually cultures take traditional fables with anthropomorphized animals every bit characters. People have also routinely attributed human emotions and behavioral traits to wild every bit well every bit domesticated animals.[3]

Etymology

Anthropomorphism and anthropomorphization derive from the verb form anthropomorphize,[a] itself derived from the Greek ánthrōpos ( ἄνθρωπος , lit. "homo") and morphē ( μορφή , "form"). It is first attested in 1753, originally in reference to the heresy of applying a human course to the Christian God.[b] [1]

Examples in prehistory

Anthropomorphic "pebble" figures from the 7th millennium BC

From the beginnings of human behavioral modernity in the Upper Paleolithic, nearly 40,000 years ago, examples of zoomorphic (beast-shaped) works of fine art occur that may correspond the earliest known prove of anthropomorphism. Ane of the oldest known is an ivory sculpture, the Löwenmensch figurine, Germany, a human-shaped figurine with the head of a lioness or lion, determined to exist nearly 32,000 years old.[5] [half dozen]

It is not possible to say what these prehistoric artworks represent. A more recent example is The Wizard, an enigmatic cave painting from the Trois-Frères Cavern, Ariège, French republic: the figure's significance is unknown, simply it is normally interpreted as some kind of dandy spirit or principal of the animals. In either case there is an element of anthropomorphism.

This anthropomorphic art has been linked by archeologist Steven Mithen with the emergence of more systematic hunting practices in the Upper Palaeolithic.[vii] He proposes that these are the product of a change in the architecture of the human listen, an increasing fluidity between the natural history and social intelligences [ clarification needed ], where anthropomorphism allowed hunters to identify empathetically with hunted animals and better predict their movements.[c]

In religion and mythology

In religion and mythology, anthropomorphism is the perception of a divine being or beings in human being form, or the recognition of human being qualities in these beings.

Ancient mythologies often represented the divine equally deities with homo forms and qualities. They resemble human beings not only in appearance and personality; they exhibited many homo behaviors that were used to explain natural phenomena, cosmos, and historical events. The deities savage in love, married, had children, fought battles, wielded weapons, and rode horses and chariots. They feasted on special foods, and sometimes required sacrifices of food, beverage, and sacred objects to be made by man beings. Some anthropomorphic deities represented specific human being concepts, such as dear, state of war, fertility, beauty, or the seasons. Anthropomorphic deities exhibited human qualities such equally dazzler, wisdom, and power, and sometimes human weaknesses such equally greed, hatred, jealousy, and uncontrollable anger. Greek deities such as Zeus and Apollo often were depicted in human being form exhibiting both commendable and despicable man traits. Anthropomorphism in this instance is, more than specifically, anthropotheism.[ix]

From the perspective of adherents to religions in which humans were created in the class of the divine, the phenomenon may be considered theomorphism, or the giving of divine qualities to humans.

Anthropomorphism has cropped up every bit a Christian heresy, especially prominently with the Audians in third century Syria, but also in fourth century Arab republic of egypt and tenth century Italy.[10] This oft was based on a literal interpretation of Genesis i:27: "So God created humankind in his prototype, in the paradigm of God he created them; male person and female he created them".[11]

Criticism

Some religions, scholars, and philosophers objected to anthropomorphic deities. The earliest known criticism was that of the Greek philosopher Xenophanes (570–480 BCE) who observed that people model their gods after themselves. He argued confronting the formulation of deities every bit fundamentally anthropomorphic:

But if cattle and horses and lions had hands
or could pigment with their hands and create works such as men practise,
horses like horses and cattle similar cattle
besides would depict the gods' shapes and make their bodies
of such a sort as the form they themselves have.
...
Ethiopians say that their gods are snub–nosed [ σιμούς ] and black
Thracians that they are pale and red-haired.[12] [d]

Xenophanes said that "the greatest god" resembles man "neither in course nor in heed".[thirteen]

Both Judaism and Islam reject an anthropomorphic deity, believing that God is beyond human comprehension. Judaism'due south rejection of an anthropomorphic deity grew during the Hasmonean period (circa 300 BCE), when Jewish belief incorporated some Greek philosophy.[1] Judaism'due south rejection grew farther after the Islamic Golden Age in the tenth century, which Maimonides codified in the 12th century, in his thirteen principles of Jewish organized religion.[due east]

In the Ismaili interpretation of Islam, assigning attributes to God every bit well as negating any attributes from God (via negativa) both qualify as anthropomorphism and are rejected, as God cannot be understood past either assigning attributes to Him or taking attributes away from Him. The 10th-century Ismaili philosopher Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani suggested the method of double negation; for example: "God is not real" followed by "God is non not-existent". This glorifies God from whatever understanding or man comprehension.[15]

Hindus practise not reject the concept of a deity in the abstract unmanifested, simply notation practical issues. Lord Krishna said in the Bhagavad Gita, Affiliate 12, Verse 5, that it is much more difficult for people to focus on a deity as the unmanifested than i with course, using anthropomorphic icons (murtis), because people need to perceive with their senses.[sixteen] [17]

In secular thought, one of the most notable criticisms began in 1600 with Francis Bacon, who argued against Aristotle'south teleology, which declared that everything behaves as it does in order to attain some end, in order to fulfill itself.[18] Bacon pointed out that achieving ends is a human being activity and to attribute it to nature misconstrues it as humanlike.[xviii] Modernistic criticisms followed Bacon's ideas such as critiques of Baruch Spinoza and David Hume. The latter, for instance, embedded his arguments in his wider criticism of human religions and specifically demonstrated in what he cited as their "inconsistence" where, on i hand, the Deity is painted in the near sublime colors but, on the other, is degraded to nearly human levels past giving him man infirmities, passions, and prejudices.[nineteen] In Faces in the Clouds, anthropologist Stewart Guthrie proposes that all religions are anthropomorphisms that originate in the brain's tendency to observe the presence or vestiges of other humans in natural phenomena.[20]

Some scholars argue that anthropomorphism overestimates the similarity of humans and nonhumans and therefore could not yield accurate accounts.[21]

In literature

Religious texts

There are diverse examples of personification in both the Hebrew Bible and Christian New Testaments, likewise equally in the texts of some other religions.

Fables

From the Panchatantra: Rabbit fools Elephant by showing the reflection of the moon

Anthropomorphism, too referred to as personification, is a well established literary device from ancient times. The story of "The Militarist and the Nightingale" in Hesiod's Works and Days preceded Aesop's fables by centuries. Collections of linked fables from Republic of india, the Jataka Tales and Panchatantra, also utilise anthropomorphized animals to illustrate principles of life. Many of the stereotypes of animals that are recognized today, such as the wily fox and the proud lion, tin can be found in these collections. Aesop's anthropomorphisms were so familiar by the commencement century CE that they colored the thinking of at least 1 philosopher:

And there is another charm nigh him, namely, that he puts animals in a pleasing light and makes them interesting to mankind. For later on existence brought up from childhood with these stories, and after being as it were nursed by them from babyhood, nosotros acquire certain opinions of the several animals and think of some of them equally royal animals, of others as dizzy, of others as witty, and others every bit innocent.

Apollonius noted that the fable was created to teach wisdom through fictions that are meant to exist taken as fictions, contrasting them favorably with the poets' stories of the deities that are sometimes taken literally. Aesop, "by announcing a story which everyone knows not to be true, told the truth by the very fact that he did not claim to be relating real events".[22] The same consciousness of the legend as fiction is to exist found in other examples beyond the world, ane instance existence a traditional Ashanti fashion of beginning tales of the anthropomorphic trickster-spider Anansi: "We practise not really hateful, we do not really mean that what we are about to say is truthful. A story, a story; let information technology come, let it become."[23]

Fairy tales

Anthropomorphic motifs have been common in fairy tales from the earliest ancient examples set in a mythological context to the smashing collections of the Brothers Grimm and Perrault. The Tale of 2 Brothers (Egypt, 13th century BCE) features several talking cows and in Cupid and Psyche (Rome, 2nd century CE) Zephyrus, the w wind, carries Psyche abroad. Later on an ant feels pitiful for her and helps her in her quest.

Modern literature

From The Emperor'due south Rout (1831)

Building on the popularity of fables and fairy tales, children's literature began to emerge in the nineteenth century with works such every bit Alice'due south Adventures in Wonderland (1865) by Lewis Carroll, The Adventures of Pinocchio (1883) by Carlo Collodi and The Jungle Book (1894) past Rudyard Kipling, all employing anthropomorphic elements. This continued in the twentieth century with many of the nearly popular titles having anthropomorphic characters,[24] examples existence The Tale of Peter Rabbit (1901) and after books past Beatrix Potter;[f] The Current of air in the Willows by Kenneth Grahame (1908); Winnie-the-Pooh (1926) and The Firm at Pooh Corner (1928) by A. A. Milne; and The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe (1950) and the subsequent books in The Chronicles of Narnia serial past C. South. Lewis.

In many of these stories the animals tin be seen as representing facets of homo personality and character.[26] Equally John Rowe Townsend remarks, discussing The Jungle Book in which the boy Mowgli must rely on his new friends the comport Baloo and the black panther Bagheera, "The earth of the jungle is in fact both itself and our world as well".[26] A notable work aimed at an adult audition is George Orwell'southward Animal Farm, in which all the master characters are anthropomorphic animals. Non-animal examples include Rev.W Awdry's children's stories of Thomas the Tank Engine and other anthropomorphic locomotives.

The fantasy genre developed from mythological, fairy tale, and Romance motifs[27] sometimes have anthropomorphic animals as characters. The best-selling examples of the genre are The Hobbit [28] (1937) and The Lord of the Rings [g] (1954–1955), both by J. R. R. Tolkien, books peopled with talking creatures such as ravens, spiders, and the dragon Smaug and a multitude of anthropomorphic goblins and elves. John D. Rateliff calls this the "Doc Dolittle Theme" in his book The History of the Hobbit [30] and Tolkien saw this anthropomorphism every bit closely linked to the emergence of human being linguistic communication and myth: "...The first men to talk of 'copse and stars' saw things very differently. To them, the earth was live with mythological beings... To them the whole of creation was 'myth-woven and elf-patterned'."[31]

Richard Adams developed a distinctive accept on anthropomorphic writing in the 1970s: his debut novel, Watership Downwardly (1972), featured rabbits that could talk—with their ain distinctive language (Lapine) and mythology—and included a police-state warren, Efrafa. Despite this, Adams attempted to ensure his characters' behavior mirrored that of wild rabbits, engaging in fighting, copulating and defecating, drawing on Ronald Lockley's written report The Private Life of the Rabbit as research. Adams returned to anthropomorphic storytelling in his later novels The Plague Dogs (1977) and Traveller (1988).[32] [33]

By the 21st century, the children's pic volume marketplace had expanded massively.[h] Maybe a majority of picture books take some kind of anthropomorphism,[24] [35] with pop examples existence The Very Hungry Caterpillar (1969) by Eric Carle and The Gruffalo (1999) by Julia Donaldson.

Anthropomorphism in literature and other media led to a sub-culture known every bit furry fandom, which promotes and creates stories and artwork involving anthropomorphic animals, and the examination and interpretation of humanity through anthropomorphism. This can often be shortened in searches as "anthro", used past some as an alternative term to "furry".[36]

Anthropomorphic characters have besides been a staple of the comic book genre. The virtually prominent one was Neil Gaiman's the Sandman which had a huge affect on how characters that are physical embodiments are written in the fantasy genre.[37] [38] Other examples also include the mature Hellblazer (personified political and moral ideas), Fables and its spin-off serial Jack of Fables, which was unique for having anthropomorphic representation of literary techniques and genres.[40] Various Japanese manga and anime take used anthropomorphism equally the footing of their story. Examples include Squid Girl (anthropomorphized squid), Hetalia: Axis Powers (personified countries), Upotte!! (personified guns), Arpeggio of Blue Steel and Kancolle (personified ships).

In picture show

Big Cadet Bunny is a gratis animated brusk featuring anthropomorphic characters

Some of the nearly notable examples are the Walt Disney characters the Magic Carpet from Disney's Aladdin franchise, Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, Goofy, and Oswald the Lucky Rabbit; the Looney Tunes characters Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, and Porky Grunter; and an assortment of others from the 1920s to present mean solar day.

In the Disney/Pixar franchises Cars and Planes, all the characters are anthropomorphic vehicles,[41] while in Toy Story, they are anthropomorphic toys. Other Pixar franchises like Monsters, Inc. features anthropomorphic monsters, and Finding Nemo features anthropomorphic marine life creatures (similar fish, sharks, and whales). Discussing anthropomorphic animals from DreamWorks franchise Madagascar, Laurie [ non sequitur ] suggests that "social differences based on conflict and contradiction are naturalized and made less 'contestable' through the classificatory matrix of human and nonhuman relations [ clarification needed ]".[41] Other DreamWorks franchises similar Shrek features fairy tale characters, and Blue Sky Studios of 20th Century Play a joke on franchises like Ice Historic period features anthropomorphic extinct animals.

All of the characters in Walt Disney Animation Studios' Zootopia (2016) are anthropomorphic animals, that is an entirely nonhuman civilization.[42]

The live-activeness/reckoner-animated franchise Alvin and the Chipmunks by 20th Century Fox centers around anthropomorphic talkative and singing chipmunks. The female singing chipmunks chosen The Chipettes are as well centered in some of the franchise's films.

In tv

Since the 1960s, anthropomorphism has also been represented in various animated television receiver shows such equally Biker Mice From Mars (1993–1996) and SWAT Kats: The Radical Squadron (1993–1995). Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, first aired in 1987, features four pizza-loving anthropomorphic turtles with a great knowledge of ninjutsu, led by their anthropomorphic rat sensei, Chief Splinter. Nickelodeon'south longest running animated Television set series SpongeBob SquarePants (1999–present), revolves around SpongeBob, a yellow sea sponge, living in the underwater town of Bikini Bottom with his anthropomorphic marine life friends. Drawing Network'due south blithe series The Astonishing World of Gumball (2011–2019) are most anthropomorphic animals and inanimate objects. All of the characters in Hasbro Studios' TV series My Picayune Pony: Friendship Is Magic (2010–2019) are anthropomorphic fantasy creatures, with almost of them existence ponies living in the pony-inhabited state of Equestria. The Netflix original serial Centaurworld focuses on a warhorse who gets transported to a Dr. Seuss-similar world full of centaurs who possess the bottom half of any brute, equally opposed to the traditional equus caballus.

In the American animated TV series Family Guy, one of the evidence's primary characters, Brian, is a dog. Brian shows many human characteristics – he walks upright, talks, smokes, and drinks Martinis – but also acts like a normal dog in other ways; for example he cannot resist chasing a brawl and barks at the mailman, believing him to be a threat.

The PBS Kids animated serial Let'southward Go Luna! centers on an anthropomorphic female person Moon who speaks, sings, and dances. She comes downwardly out of the sky to serve as a tutor of international culture to the three main characters: a boy frog and wombat and a girl butterfly, who are supposed to be preschool children traveling a world populated by anthropomorphic animals with a circus run by their parents.

The French-Belgian blithe series Mush-Mush & the Mushables takes place in a globe inhabited by Mushables, which are anthropomrphic fungi, forth with other critters such as beetles, snails, and frogs.

In video games

In Armello, anthropomorphic animals boxing for control of the animal kingdom

Sonic the Hedgehog, a video game franchise debuting in 1991, features a speedy bluish hedgehog as the main protagonist. This series' characters are about all anthropomorphic animals such as foxes, cats, and other hedgehogs who are able to speak and walk on their hind legs like normal humans. Every bit with nearly anthropomorphisms of animals, clothing is of little or no importance, where some characters may be fully clothed while some vesture only shoes and gloves.

Another popular example in video games is the Super Mario series, debuting in 1985 with Super Mario Bros., of which primary antagonist includes a fictional species of anthropomorphic turtle-similar creatures known as Koopas. Other games in the serial, equally well as of other of its greater Mario franchise, spawned like characters such every bit Yoshi, Donkey Kong and many others.

Art history

Claes Oldenburg

Claes Oldenburg's soft sculptures are commonly described equally anthropomorphic. Depicting common household objects, Oldenburg's sculptures were considered Pop Fine art. Reproducing these objects, frequently at a greater size than the original, Oldenburg created his sculptures out of soft materials. The anthropomorphic qualities of the sculptures were mainly in their sagging and malleable exterior which mirrored the not-so-idealistic forms of the human being body. In "Soft Lite Switches" Oldenburg creates a household low-cal switch out of vinyl. The two identical switches, in a dulled orange, insinuate nipples. The soft vinyl references the crumbling procedure as the sculpture wrinkles and sinks with time.

Minimalism

In the essay "Art and Objecthood", Michael Fried makes the case that "literalist art" (minimalism) becomes theatrical by means of anthropomorphism. The viewer engages the minimalist piece of work, non equally an autonomous art object, but as a theatrical interaction. Fried references a conversation in which Tony Smith answers questions nigh his half-dozen-foot cube, "Die".

Q: Why didn't you brand it larger and then that it would loom over the observer?

A: I was not making a monument.

Q: And so why didn't you make information technology smaller and then that the observer could encounter over the elevation?

A: I was non making an object.

Fried implies an anthropomorphic connectedness past means of "a surrogate person – that is, a kind of statue."

The minimalist conclusion of "hollowness" in much of their work was also considered by Fried to be "blatantly anthropomorphic". This "hollowness" contributes to the idea of a separate inside; an idea mirrored in the human form. Fried considers the Literalist fine art's "hollowness" to be "biomorphic" equally it references a living organism.[43]

Post-minimalism

Curator Lucy Lippard'south Eccentric Abstraction show, in 1966, sets up Briony Fer's writing of a post-minimalist anthropomorphism. Reacting to Fried's interpretation of minimalist art's "looming presence of objects which appear every bit actors might on a phase", Fer interprets the artists in Eccentric Abstraction to a new form of anthropomorphism. She puts forth the thoughts of Surrealist writer Roger Caillois, who speaks of the "spacial lure of the subject, the way in which the bailiwick could inhabit their surroundings." Caillous uses the example of an insect who "through camouflage does so in order to become invisible... and loses its distinctness." For Fer, the anthropomorphic qualities of imitation found in the erotic, organic sculptures of artists Eva Hesse and Louise Bourgeois, are not necessarily for strictly "mimetic" purposes. Instead, like the insect, the work must come into being in the "scopic field... which nosotros cannot view from exterior."[44]

Mascots

For branding, merchandising, and representation, figures known as mascots are now ofttimes employed to personify sports teams, corporations, and major events such as the World's Off-white and the Olympics. These personifications may be uncomplicated human or animal figures, such as Ronald McDonald or the donkey that represents the United States's Democratic Party. Other times, they are anthropomorphic items, such as "Clippy" or the "Michelin Man". Most often, they are anthropomorphic animals such as the Analeptic Bunny or the San Diego Craven.

The practice is particularly widespread in Nihon, where cities, regions, and companies all accept mascots, collectively known every bit yuru-chara. Two of the most pop are Kumamon (a bear who represents Kumamoto Prefecture)[45] and Funassyi (a pear who represents Funabashi, a suburb of Tokyo).[46]

Animals

Other examples of anthropomorphism include the attribution of homo traits to animals, particularly domesticated pets such as dogs and cats. Examples of this include thinking a canis familiaris is smiling only because it is showing his teeth,[47] or a cat mourns for a dead owner.[48] Anthropomorphism may be beneficial to the welfare of animals. A 2012 study by Butterfield et al. found that utilizing anthropomorphic language when describing dogs created a greater willingness to help them in situations of distress.[49] Previous studies have shown that individuals who aspect human characteristics to animals are less willing to eat them,[50] and that the degree to which individuals perceive minds in other animals predicts the moral business organisation afforded to them.[51] It is possible that anthropomorphism leads humans to like non-humans more when they accept apparent human qualities, since perceived similarity has been shown to increase prosocial behavior toward other humans.[52]

In science

In scientific discipline, the use of anthropomorphic linguistic communication that suggests animals take intentions and emotions has traditionally been deprecated as indicating a lack of objectivity. Biologists have been warned to avoid assumptions that animals share whatever of the same mental, social, and emotional capacities of humans, and to rely instead on strictly observable evidence.[53] In 1927 Ivan Pavlov wrote that animals should be considered "without any need to resort to fantastic speculations equally to the existence of any possible subjective states".[54] More recently, The Oxford companion to animal behaviour (1987) advised that "one is well advised to study the behaviour rather than attempting to go at any underlying emotion".[55] Some scientists, similar William M Wheeler (writing apologetically of his utilise of anthropomorphism in 1911), have used anthropomorphic language in metaphor to make subjects more humanly comprehensible or memorable.[i]

Despite the bear upon of Charles Darwin'southward ideas in The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (Konrad Lorenz in 1965 called him a "patron saint" of ethology)[57] ethology has generally focused on behavior, not on emotion in animals.[57]

Even insects play together, as has been described by that excellent observer, P. Huber, who saw ants chasing and pretending to seize with teeth each other, like so many puppies.

The study of great apes in their ain environment and in captivity[j] has changed attitudes to anthropomorphism. In the 1960s the three so-called "Leakey's Angels", Jane Goodall studying chimpanzees, Dian Fossey studying gorillas and Biruté Galdikas studying orangutans, were all accused of "that worst of ethological sins – anthropomorphism".[threescore] The charge was brought most by their descriptions of the great apes in the field; it is now more widely accepted that empathy has an important part to play in research.

De Waal has written: "To endow animals with homo emotions has long been a scientific taboo. Only if we do not, we hazard missing something primal, almost both animals and the states."[61] Alongside this has come increasing awareness of the linguistic abilities of the peachy apes and the recognition that they are tool-makers and have individuality and civilization.[62]

Writing of cats in 1992, veterinary Bruce Fogle points to the fact that "both humans and cats have identical neurochemicals and regions in the brain responsible for emotion" as evidence that "it is not anthropomorphic to credit cats with emotions such as jealousy".[63]

In calculating

In science fiction, an artificially-intelligent computer or robot, even though it has not been programmed with human emotions, oft spontaneously experiences those emotions anyway: for case, Amanuensis Smith in The Matrix was influenced past a "disgust" toward humanity. This is an case of anthropomorphism: in reality, while an artificial intelligence could peradventure be deliberately programmed with man emotions, or could develop something similar to an emotion as a means to an ultimate goal if information technology is useful to practise so, it would non spontaneously develop human emotions for no purpose whatever, as portrayed in fiction.[64]

One example of anthropomorphism would be to believe that one's computer is angry at them because they insulted it; another would exist to believe that an intelligent robot would naturally find a woman bonny and be driven to mate with her. Scholars sometimes disagree with each other nearly whether a particular prediction about an bogus intelligence'due south beliefs is logical, or whether the prediction constitutes illogical anthropomorphism.[64] An case that might initially exist considered anthropomorphism, just is in fact a logical statement most an bogus intelligence's behavior, would exist the Dario Floreano experiments where certain robots spontaneously evolved a crude capacity for "deception", and tricked other robots into eating "poison" and dying: hither, a trait, "deception", ordinarily associated with people rather than with machines, spontaneously evolves in a blazon of convergent evolution.[65]

The conscious employ of anthropomorphic metaphor is not intrinsically unwise; ascribing mental processes to the calculator, under the proper circumstances, may serve the aforementioned purpose as information technology does when humans do it to other people: it may help persons to understand what the estimator volition do, how their actions will touch the computer, how to compare computers with humans, and conceivably how to design computer programs. However, inappropriate use of anthropomorphic metaphors can result in false beliefs about the behavior of computers, for example by causing people to overestimate how "flexible" computers are.[66] According to Paul R. Cohen and Edward Feigenbaum, in guild to differentiate between anthropomorphization and logical prediction of AI behavior, "the pull a fast one on is to know enough about how humans and computers recall to say exactly what they have in common, and, when nosotros lack this noesis, to use the comparison to propose theories of human thinking or figurer thinking."[67]

Computers overturn the babyhood hierarchical taxonomy of "stones (non-living) → plants (living) → animals (conscious) → humans (rational)", past introducing a not-human "actor" that appears to regularly behave rationally. Much of calculating terminology derives from anthropomorphic metaphors: computers can "read", "write", or "catch a virus". Information technology presents no clear correspondence with any other entities in the globe also humans; the options are either to leverage an emotional, imprecise human being metaphor, or to reject imprecise metaphor and make apply of more precise, domain-specific technical terms.[66]

People often grant an unnecessary social role to computers during interactions. The underlying causes are debated; Youngme Moon and Clifford Nass suggest that humans are emotionally, intellectually and physiologically biased toward social activity, and then when presented with fifty-fifty tiny social cues, deeply-infused social responses are triggered automatically.[66] [68] This may allow incorporation of anthropomorphic features into computers/robots to enable more familiar "social" interactions, making them easier to use.[69]

Psychology

Foundational research

In psychology, the first empirical study of anthropomorphism was conducted in 1944 by Fritz Heider and Marianne Simmel.[seventy] In the first function of this experiment, the researchers showed a ii-and-a-one-half infinitesimal long animation of several shapes moving around on the screen in varying directions at various speeds. When subjects were asked to depict what they saw, they gave detailed accounts of the intentions and personalities of the shapes. For instance, the big triangle was characterized every bit a bully, chasing the other two shapes until they could trick the big triangle and escape. The researchers concluded that when people see objects making motions for which there is no obvious cause, they view these objects as intentional agents (individuals that deliberately brand choices to achieve goals).

Modern psychologists generally narrate anthropomorphism as a cognitive bias. That is, anthropomorphism is a cognitive process by which people employ their schemas nearly other humans equally a footing for inferring the backdrop of non-human entities in lodge to make efficient judgements about the surround, fifty-fifty if those inferences are not always authentic.[two] Schemas nearly humans are used every bit the ground because this knowledge is caused early in life, is more detailed than knowledge about non-human entities, and is more readily accessible in memory.[71] Anthropomorphism can likewise role as a strategy to cope with loneliness when other human connections are not available.[72]

Three-gene theory

Since making inferences requires cognitive try, anthropomorphism is likely to be triggered only when sure aspects nigh a person and their environment are true. Psychologist Adam Waytz and his colleagues created a three-factor theory of anthropomorphism to describe these aspects and predict when people are most likely to anthropomorphize.[71] The three factors are:

  • Elicited agent cognition, or the amount of prior knowledge held virtually an object and the extent to which that cognition is chosen to heed.
  • Effectance, or the bulldoze to collaborate with and understand i's environment.
  • Sociality, the need to establish social connections.

When elicited agent noesis is low and effectance and sociality are loftier, people are more likely to anthropomorphize. Various dispositional, situational, developmental, and cultural variables can affect these three factors, such equally need for cognition, social disconnection, cultural ideologies, uncertainty avoidance, etc.

Developmental perspective

Children appear to anthropomorphize and apply egocentric reasoning from an early age and use it more frequently than adults.[73] Examples of this are describing a storm cloud equally "angry" or drawing flowers with faces. This penchant for anthropomorphism is likely considering children have acquired vast amounts of socialization, just not as much experience with specific non-human entities, so thus they accept less adult alternative schemas for their environment.[71] In dissimilarity, autistic children tend to describe anthropomorphized objects in purely mechanical terms (that is, in terms of what they practice) because they have difficulties with theory of mind.[74]

Result on learning

Anthropomorphism tin be used to assistance learning. Specifically, anthropomorphized words[75] and describing scientific concepts with intentionality[76] can better later recall of these concepts.

In mental health

In people with depression, social anxiety, or other mental illnesses, emotional support animals are a useful component of handling partially because anthropomorphism of these animals can satisfy the patients' need for social connection.[77]

In marketing

Anthropomorphism of inanimate objects can affect product buying behavior. When products seem to resemble a human schema, such as the front end of a car resembling a face, potential buyers evaluate that product more positively than if they do not anthropomorphize the object.[78]

People also tend to trust robots to do more circuitous tasks such every bit driving a motorcar or childcare if the robot resembles humans in ways such as having a face, vox, and name; mimicking human being motions; expressing emotion; and displaying some variability in behavior.[79] [80]

Prototype gallery

  • A Danish electrical socket - with its two 'eyes' and a 'mouth' (all three functional parts of the device), forming a pareidolic face.

    A Danish electric socket - with its two 'eyes' and a 'rima oris' (all three functional parts of the device), forming a pareidolic confront.

See also

  • Aniconism – antithetic concept
  • Animism
  • Anthropic principle
  • Anthropocentrism
  • Anthropology
  • Anthropomorphic maps
  • Anthropopathism
  • Cynocephaly
  • Furry fandom
  • Great Chain of Beingness
  • Human being-fauna hybrid
  • Humanoid
  • Moe anthropomorphism
  • National personification
  • Pareidolia – seeing faces in everyday objects
  • Pathetic fallacy
  • Prosopopoeia
  • Speciesism
  • Talking animals in fiction
  • Tashbih
  • Zoomorphism

Notes

  1. ^ Peradventure via French anthropomorphisme .[1]
  2. ^ Anthropomorphism, among divines, the error of those who ascribe a man effigy to the deity.[iv]
  3. ^ In the New York Review of Books, Gardner opined that "I find well-nigh convincing Mithen'south claim that man intelligence lies in the chapters to make connections: through using metaphors".[8]
  4. ^ Many other translations of this passage accept Xenophanes state that the Thracians were "blond".
  5. ^ Moses Maimonides quoted Rabbi Abraham Ben David: "It is stated in the Torah and books of the prophets that God has no trunk, every bit stated 'Since G-d your God is the god (lit. gods) in the heavens above and in the globe beneath" and a torso cannot be in both places. And it was said 'Since you have non seen any image' and it was said 'To who would you compare me, and I would be equal to them?' and if he was a torso, he would be like the other bodies."[14]
  6. ^ The Victoria and Albert Museum wrote: "Beatrix Potter is nevertheless i of the world's best-selling and best-loved children's authors. Potter wrote and illustrated a total of 28 books, including the 23 Tales, the 'piffling books' that have been translated into more than 35 languages and sold over 100 million copies."[25]
  7. ^ 150 1000000 sold, a 2007 estimate of copies of the total story sold, whether published as one volume, three, or some other configuration.[29]
  8. ^ It is estimated that the Uk marketplace for children'southward books was worth £672m in 2004.[34]
  9. ^ In 1911, Wheeler wrote: "The larval insect is, if I may be permitted to lapse for a moment into anthropomorphism, a sluggish, greedy, self-centred creature, while the adult is industrious, abstemious and highly altruistic..."[56]
  10. ^ In 1946, Hebb wrote: "A thoroughgoing attempt to avoid anthropomorphic description in the written report of temperament was made over a 2-yr period at the Yerkes laboratories. All that resulted was an most endless series of specific acts in which no club or meaning could be establish. On the other manus, by the utilize of frankly anthropomorphic concepts of emotion and attitude one could quickly and easily describe the peculiarities of individual animals... Whatsoever the anthropomorphic terminology may seem to imply about conscious states in chimpanzee, it provides an intelligible and applied guide to behavior."[59]

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Sources

  • Masson, Jeffrey Moussaieff; McCarthy, Susan (1996). When Elephants Weep: Emotional Lives of Animals. Vintage. p. 272. ISBN978-0-09-947891-ane.

Farther reading

  • Baynes, T. South., ed. (1878). "Anthropomorphism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. ii (ninth ed.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 123–124.
  • Mackintosh, Robert (1911). "Anthropomorphism". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 120.
  • Kennedy, John S. (1992). The New Anthropomorphism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-42267-three.
  • Mithen, Steven (1998). The Prehistory Of The Mind: A Search for the Origins of Fine art, Religion and Science. Phoenix. p. 480. Bibcode:1996pmso.book.....M. ISBN978-0-7538-0204-v.

External links

  • "Anthropomorphism" entry in the Encyclopedia of Human being-Creature Relationships (Horowitz A., 2007)
  • "Anthropomorphism" entry in the Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight
  • "Anthropomorphism" in mid-century American print advertising. Collection at The Gallery of Graphic Blueprint.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropomorphism

Posted by: stevensonablents.blogspot.com

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